![]() ![]() This hand was clearly used in walking (hooves) and in defence or display (thumb spike). The most remarkable modifications are seen in the hand (Figure 8.13(c)), in which the carpals and metacarpal 1 are fused to form a single block in the wrist, digit 1 is reduced to a thumb spike, digits 2-4 form a bunch and digits 2 and 3 have small hooves. In the skeleton (Figure 8.13(b)), the prepubic process is ex panded, the postpubic process is very short and there is a complex lattice of ossified tendons over the neural spines of all vertebrae of the trunk and tail. Iguanodon from the Lower Cretaceous of Europe (Norman, 1980, 1986b) has a horse-like skull (Figure 8.13(a)). The 'iguanodontids' are a paraphyletic group representing stages of the acquisition of advanced hadrosaurian characters (Sereno, 1986). The foot touched the ground and the power stroke in which the body moves forward was achieved by the retractors and flexors, which pulled the femur and lower leg back respectively. As the leg swung forwards, the protractors pulled the femur forwards and upwards and the extensors extended the lower leg. (After Galton 1974.)ģ Extensors, muscles that extend the lower leg: ilio-tibialis, femorotibialis.Ĥ Flexors, muscles that pull the lower leg back: iliofibu-laris, flexor tibialis internus.ĭuring a single step all of these muscles came into play. 8.12 The ornithopod Hypsilophodon: (a) skeleton in running pose (b,c) skull in lateral and ventral views (d) foot in anterior view (e) restoration of the muscles of the pelvis and hindlimb, coded according to their functions. They fall into four groups that define their functions in walking.ġ Protractors, muscles that pull the femur forwards and up: iliofemoris, puboischiofemoralis internus (upper part).Ģ Retractors, muscles that pull the femur back: pubois-chiofemoralis internus (lower part), caudifemoralis longus and brevis, adductor femoralis. The muscle names record the bones to which they attach at each end. Galton (1974) made a detailed restoration of the muscles of the hindlimbs of Hypsilophodon (Figure 8.12(e)), based on muscle scars and processes on the bones and comparison with dissections of modern birds and alligators (see Box 6.2). Of a fast-moving gazelle, especially the very long shin and foot. (Modified from Norman and Weishampel, 1985.) Ornithopod jaw mechanics: the lower jaws of Heterodontosaurus (a) slide outwards as they close, hence producing a kind of 'chewing', whereas later ornithopods have a pleurokinetic hinge, which allows the cheek portion of the skull and the maxillary teeth, shown stippled in (b), to move outwards as the jaws close (c). Perhaps this ability explains the vast success of ornithopods in the Cretaceous after the heyday of the sauropods had passed. Ceratopsians could probably also slice their plant food effectively between powerful shearing jaws, but the other herbivorous dinosaurs lacked chewing adaptations. This pattern was taken to an extreme in hadrosaurids, which had a dental battery in which five or six rows of teeth below the jaw line could also be in use (see Figure 8.14(a-c)). As in all reptiles, teeth were replaced continuously as they became worn out and replacement teeth lined up below the currently functioning teeth on the inside of the jaws. Most ornithopods had single rows of teeth on the crests of their jaws. This specialized pleurokinetic hinge (illustration (b)) produces the same lateral shearing effect (illustration (c)) as did the rotating mandible of the heterodontosaurids. The hypsilophodontids, ' iguanodontids' and hadrosaurids have essentially fixed lower jaws that simply moved up and down without distortion during chewing, while the side of the skull (maxilla, lacrimal, jugal, quadratojugal, quadrate) as well as attached palatal elements (ectopterygoid, palatine, pterygoid) flap in and out. This mode of jaw rotation provided one solution to the problem of creating an efficient shearing scissor-like cutting movement between the cheek teeth (see illustration (a)).Īll later ornithopods adopted the other option, of rotating the maxilla, in order to achieve lateral shearing, and this adaptation is said to lie at the root of the great success of the ornithopods in the Cretaceous (Norman and Weishampel, 1985). The articular-quadrate joint at the back and a special ball and socket joint at the front between the dentary and predentary, allowed rotation as the jaws opened and closed. Heterodontosaurus had a rotating lower jaw. Ornithopods hit on two solutions to the problem, and both of these are different from the mammalian technique (see pp. We chew our food before swallowing in order to aid digestion: reptiles and birds just gulp their food down. ![]() Chewing, in which the back teeth move sideways and back and forwards, is normally thought to be a special feature of mammals. ![]() Ornithopod dinosaurs were unique among reptiles in that they could chew their food.
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When you boot your computer, there is an initial screen that comes up, in which your folders, documents, and software shortcuts are placed. ![]() Confirmation that there will not be an adverse resource impact to the local hydrology due to a large volume water withdrawal associated with HVHF Michigan rules require additional monitoring and further approval through Michigan's Water Withdrawal Assessment Tool (WWAT). ![]() Some specific protective measures in Michigan's rules include: Michigan's administrative rules governing oil and gas development activities (Part 615, Supervisor of Wells, of the Natural Resources and Environmental Protection Act, Public Act 451 of 1994) were revised in 2015 to address the additional concerns associated with HVHF well completions. Larger initial volumes and handling of flowback fluids Flowback fluids are comprised of the initial return hydraulic fracturing fluids and native brines that are brought back to the surface after the well is completed and pressure is released.Larger overall water usage for well completions.The hydraulic fracturing process is usually a one-time event for that particular well, so once the initial well completion has occurred, the site activity (equipment, personnel, and truck traffic) is reduced and any further activity does not significantly differ from typical oil and gas development. There is overall more equipment, personnel, and truck traffic during the initial few months of development. For example, well site activity for HVHF well completions is normally more intense. The High Volume Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use Tracking Table shows approximate groundwater volumes withdrawn for high volume hydraulic fracturing completions in Michigan since 2008.ĭifferences with High Volume Hydraulic FracturingĪs compared to typical oil and gas development and smaller volume hydraulic fracturing activities, there are additional concerns associated with HVHF well completions. The Michigan High Volume Hydraulic Fracturing Activity Map shows the locations and status of active applications, active permits, and drilled wells utilizing high volume hydraulic fracturing in Michigan since 2008. Since 2008, over 30 wells have been completed using HVHF.įor specific details regarding HVHF activities in Michigan, please follow the links below: While limited overall compared to the volume of activities in other states, HVHF well completions have occurred in Michigan. HVHF is defined in Michigan as a well completion operation that uses over 100,000 gallons of primary carrier fluid. This method of well completion has been occurring in Michigan for over ½ of a century where more than 12,000 wells have been hydraulically fractured.Įxtensive use of 'High Volume Hydraulic Fracturing' (HVHF) is a more recent development. Hydraulic fracturing has been in the news a great deal recently, but the process for enhancing oil and natural gas production is far from new. Hydraulic fracturing is a well completion operation that involves pumping fluids and proppant (typically sand) into a target formation under pressure to create or propagate artificial fractures, or enhance natural fractures, for the purpose of improving deliverability and production of hydrocarbons. |